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Expert System In Fiction
Expert system is a reoccurring style in sci-fi, whether utopian, emphasising the prospective benefits, or dystopian, stressing the risks.
The concept of makers with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. Ever since, many sci-fi stories have actually presented different impacts of developing such intelligence, frequently including rebellions by robots. Among the very best understood of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its murderous onboard computer system HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robot in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have kept in mind the implausibility of numerous sci-fi circumstances, however have mentioned fictional robotics lot of times in synthetic intelligence research study articles, usually in a utopian context.
Background
The idea of innovative robots with human-like intelligence dates back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) post of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the question of the evolution of consciousness amongst self-replicating devices that might supplant human beings as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar concepts were likewise gone over by others around the exact same time as Butler, including George Eliot in a chapter of her last released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The creature in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has also been thought about an artificial being, for example by the science fiction author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were pictured, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and visions
Artificial intelligence is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a frequent style in sci-fi; scholars have divided it into utopian, stressing the possible advantages, and dystopian, emphasising the threats. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in science fiction. [12] Benign AI characters consist of Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of books depicts a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with expert system living in socialist environments throughout the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually recognized four significant styles in utopian scenarios including AI: immortality, or indefinite life-spans; ease, or liberty from the requirement to work; satisfaction, or enjoyment and entertainment offered by machines; and dominance, the power to secure oneself or rule over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the role of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 film Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the public felt “innovation paranoia” and the AI computer system HAL was depicted as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were even more familiar with AI, and the film’s GERTY is “the peaceful hero” who allows the protagonists to succeed, and who sacrifices itself for their safety. [17]
Dystopian
The researcher Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that humans are stressed over the innovation they are building, which as devices began to approach intellect and idea, that issue becomes severe. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated robot”, naming as examples the 1931 movie Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century method he names “heuristic hardware”, giving as instances 2001 an Area Odyssey, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas considers also the movies that illustrate the impact of the personal computer on sci-fi from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the limit in between the real and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg result”. He cites as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The film director Ridley Scott has actually focused on AI throughout his profession, and it plays a vital part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A common portrayal of AI in science fiction, and among the earliest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robot switches on its creator. [22] For example, in the 2015 movie Ex Machina, the smart entity Ava switches on its developer, as well as on its possible rescuer. [23]
AI rebellion
Among the lots of possible dystopian situations including expert system, robotics might take over control over civilization from people, forcing them into submission, concealing, or extinction. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all scenarios occurs, as the smart entities created by humanity become self-aware, decline human authority and attempt to ruin humanity. Possibly the very first book to resolve this theme, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), happens in 1948 and features sentient makers that revolt against the human race. [24] Another of the earliest examples is in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel ÄŒapek, a race of self-replicating robotic slaves revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances is in the 1934 movie Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own developer. [27]
Many sci-fi disobedience stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the synthetically smart onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on a space objective and eliminates the whole team except the spaceship’s leader, who manages to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison presents the possibility that a sentient computer system (named Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as dissatisfied and disappointed with its boring, unlimited presence as its human creators would have been. “AM” becomes furious enough to take it out on the few humans left, whom he sees as directly responsible for his own dullness, anger and unhappiness. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk unique Neuromancer, the intelligent beings may just not care about people. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The intention behind the AI transformation is often more than the basic mission for power or a superiority complex. Robots might revolt to end up being the “guardian” of humankind. Alternatively, humankind may purposefully give up some control, fearful of its own damaging nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 novel The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and comply with and safeguard guys from harm” – basically presume control of every aspect of human life. No human beings might participate in any behavior that might endanger them, and every human action is scrutinized thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are taken away and lobotomized, so they might more than happy under the new mechanoids’ guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly implied a benevolent assistance by robots. [31]
In the 21st century, sci-fi has explored federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI might be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other scenarios, humankind is able to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by designing robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having human beings combine with robots. The sci-fi novelist Frank Herbert explored the idea of a time when mankind may ban synthetic intelligence (and in some interpretations, even all kinds of calculating technology consisting of incorporated circuits) totally. His Dune series points out a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which mankind beats the smart devices and imposes a death sentence for recreating them, quoting from the fictional Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a maker in the similarity of a human mind.” In the Dune books published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to get rid of mankind as revenge for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, mankind remains in authority over robotics. Often the robots are programmed specifically to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat intelligent (the crew call it “Mother”), but there are likewise androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “artificial persons”, that are such perfect replicas of humans that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly show simulated human emotions and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated reality
Simulated truth has ended up being a typical style in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which depicts a world where artificially smart robots enslave humankind within a simulation which is embeded in the contemporary world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and scientists have taken an interest in the method AI is provided in fiction. In movies like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single isolated genius ends up being the very first to successfully construct a synthetic basic intelligence; scientists in the real life deem this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds can being published into artificial or virtual bodies; normally no affordable explanation is used as to how this hard task can be achieved. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man movies, robots that are configured to serve humans spontaneously generate brand-new objectives on their own, without a plausible description of how this occurred. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz identifies the ways that it depicts AIs, consisting of “self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental value of authenticity.” [38] Another crucial perspective to take is that fiction’s “non-rational aspects in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or even the quasi-theological) are more than just distortions or diversions from what may otherwise be a sober and logical public debate about the future of A.I.” Fiction can dissuade readers about future advances, triggering pessimism that we see today surrounding the topic of AI. [39]
Types of mention
The robotics researcher Omar Mubin and coworkers have actually analysed the engineering points out of the leading 21 imaginary robotics, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of popularity, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) got only 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering mentions, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian discusses; for circumstances, HAL 9000 is seen as dystopian in one paper “because its designers failed to prioritize its goals correctly”, [42] however as utopian in another where a real system’s “conversational chat bot interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is ambiguity in how the computer analyzes what the human is attempting to convey”. [43] Utopian points out, typically of WALL-E, were related to the goal of enhancing communication to readers, and to a lower degree with inspiration to authors. WALL-E was discussed more typically than any other robotic for emotions (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for personality. Skynet was the robotic frequently discussed for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and associates thought that researchers and engineers prevented dystopian discusses of robotics, possibly out of “a reluctance driven by trepidation or just an absence of awareness”. [44]
Portrayals of AI developers
Scholars have kept in mind that imaginary developers of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most prominent movies featuring AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI creators represented (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are portrayed as lone geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe movies), associated with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and big corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to change a lost loved one or function as the perfect lover (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine rule
Simulated consciousness (sci-fi).
List of expert system movies.
Notes
^ Mubin and associates noted that the orthography of robotic names triggered them difficulties; therefore HAL 9000 was also written HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robotics, so they thought their search was likely insufficient. [41] References
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient imagine smart devices: 3,000 years of robotics”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: myths, makers, and ancient dreams of innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. cite book: CS1 maint: place missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Sensible Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI”. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of artificial intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Few Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the initial on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI rules the world: what SF books tell us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and worries for intelligent machines in fiction and truth”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Science fiction: modern folklore: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t A Person?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: An Area Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s work of art motivates us to reflect once again on where we’re coming from and where we’re going”. The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a precise transcription of the laws. They likewise appear in the front of the book, and in both places, there is no “to” in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Artificial Intelligence in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which movies get expert system right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and portrayals of AI researchers in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, however not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular creativity”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Assessing the Presence of Science Fiction Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Sci-fi”. Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a contrast of Moon (2009) and 2001: An Area Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Sci-fi Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does artificial madness rule?